Before the mid-19th century, when Castrén was travelling in the European Arctic, large-scale nomadic reindeer herding was developing fast, but, as shown by Krupnik (1976; 1993: 171–80), it never meant a stable number of reindeer herds, but rather there was a constant change in the number of herds as a result of ecological, political, and economic factors. In addition, it is important to note that instead of a total shift, there were always herders with fewer reindeer, which also means more reliance on fishing and hunting. The Kanin and Timan Nenets seem to have shifted to a pastoralist economy before the Bolʹšezemelʹskaja ones, which is why they also had more reindeer in the early 19th century. (See Tuisku 1999: 58–65; Stammler 2005: 62–66; Anderson 2014; Stepanoff et al. 2017; Dolgich 1970: 23–25.)

The number of reindeer is one indicator of the development of a large-scale pastoralist reindeer economy. The variation in the sizes of the herds is not only a marker of economic stratification, but rather indicates that there were different kinds of economic strategies among the Nenets. Those who owned only a few reindeer used them as draught animals and focused on fishing and hunting, and were most probably hired by Russian or Komi merchants. With a few hundred reindeer, one could live by selling hunting products, whereas with thousands of reindeer, there was a possibility of living on reindeer products alone. (See Krupnik 1976.) As noted recently, the number of reindeer not only gave prestige and enabled movement but also tied the large-scale reindeer herders to the tundra and the herd (Golovnev 2004; Stepanoff et al. 2017). It is rather perplexing how fast the combination of large herds and the ability to move in the tundra became emblematic of the Nenets way of life, TN ненэй илеңгана, although pastoralism was still developing in the early 19th century. This is most probably related to the prestige related to large herds, but also their value in exchange and in hunting (Stepanoff et al. 2017). Additionally, there is a tendency in 19th-century explorers, such as Castrén, to describe reindeer herding as the emblematic and immemorial form of subsistence, which for a long time obscured the transition that was taking place. (For the development of reindeer herding, see also Losey et al. 2021; Anderson et al. 2019; Stépanoff 2017.)

Fishing has a significant role in Nenets subsistence. Fishing is focused on the rivers and lakes, and is especially important for the communities living near large rivers such as the Pečora, Pur, and Nadym. Fishing is carried out with the help of seines, nets, traps, and weirs. It is important for food, but also for extra income. In the 19th century, Nenets also worked as fishermen for Russian merchants and were part of fishing communities; see note [af andra Samojj.] and [Mezen merchants]. (Chomič 1966: 78–80.)

Chajpudyr Bay, situated on the western side of the Yugor Peninsula. N68°30′14″ E59°31′54″

Varandej Bay, situated on the western side of the Yugor Peninsula. N68°44′53″ E57°59′48″

The River Korotaicha flows into the Pečora Sea on the west coast of the Yugor Peninsula. (GVR)

The River Kara flows into Kara Bay on the east coast of the Yugor Peninsula. According to Schrenk, TN ”Harájjagha oder Harájagha, d.i. der bugreiche Fluss [Хараяга]” (GVR) (Schrenk 1848: 463; Šrenk 2009: 312)

Ru belucha, ТN вэбарка ʻwhite whale, beluga’ (Delphinapterus leucas Pallas).

Ru lisica, ТN тëня ʻfox’ (Vulpes vulpes Linnaeus).

Ru (sosnovaja) kunica, TN иңгней ʻpine marten’ (Martes martes Linnaeus).